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a b c Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp.152–, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. [103] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. [103]

Smith, Vincent Arthur (1917). Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605. Oxford at The Clarendon Press. pp.13–14. According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres. [149] This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century; [149] the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century. [150] Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (2006). "East–West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. doi: 10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. Daniyal, Shoaib. "Bengali New Year: how Akbar invented the modern Bengali calendar". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022 . Retrieved 30 April 2016. a b Moosvi, Shireen (December 2011). "The World of Labour in Mughal India (c. 1500–1750)". International Review of Social History. 56 (S19): 245–261. doi: 10.1017/S0020859011000526.Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty began to sink into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", [43] as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. [70] [71]